SKIN STUDY | SKIN

INTRODUCTION TO SKIN STUDY

The Human Skin is the largest organ in the body. It provides a touch, flexible covering with many different important functions.

Sensation
Heat Regulation
Absorption
Protection
Excretion
Secretion

The Skin varies in appearance according to our ethnicity, gender and age. It also alters from season to season and from year to year; and reflects our general health, lifestyle and diet.

If we were able to look at a section of the skin through a microcoscope, we would see two distinct layers: the epidermis and the dermis.

Between these layers is a specialised layer that acts like a 'glue', sticking the two layers together. This is the basement membrane. If the epidermis and dermis become seperated, body fluids fill in the space, creating a blister, a small pocket of fluid on the top layer of the skin.

Lets take a better look...

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE EPIDERMIS

The Epidermis is the outer layer of the skin and located directly above the dermis. It is composed of five layers, with the surface layer forming the outer skin - what we can see and touch. The main function of the epidermis is to protect the deeper living structures from invasion and harm from the external environment.

Each layer of the epidermis can be recongnised by its shape and by the function of its cells. The main type of cell found in the epidermis is the keratinocyte, which produces the protein keratin. It is keratin that makes the skin touch, which reduces the passage of substances into or out of the body. It also contains other cells including the melanocytes and Langerhans cells.

The epidermis does not contain blood vessels. Nourishment of the epidermis is essential for growth and is received from a liquid called interstitial fluid formed from blood plasma. This acts as a link between the blood and cells.

Over a period of about four weeks, cells move from the bottom layer of the epidermis to the top layer, the skins surface, changing in shape and structure as they progress. The process of cellular change takes place in stages:

The cell is formed at the bottom layer by division of an earlier cell, a process called mitosis.
The cell mutates. It changes structure and moves upwards and outwards, the cytoplasm being replaced with keratin, becoming harder and flatter in structure.
The cell dies as it moves towards the top layer and becomes an empty shell, which is eventually shed from this layer.

There are five layers of the epidermis so lets take a look at them...

The epidermis is essentially a layering of differentially mature keratinocytes, going from least differentiated (stratum basale) to most differentiated (stratum corneum).

The rate and extent of differentiation may change according to physiologic demand, whether due to normal, everyday need (e.g. digital pads) or in response to a disease process (e.g. bacterial dermatitis). In this way, the skin responds to external, and sometimes internal, stimuli in an exceptionally dynamic manner.

Another important point to consider is the energy needs of the integumentary system.

The constant proliferation and generation of new keratinocytes is necessary to balance the constant loss of superficial keratinocytes (desquamation). As a result, the skin has an immense nutritional requirement. In the event of suboptimal nutrition, the skin and hair coat may be altered, reflecting this systemic nutritional deficiency.

In fact, dogs with chronic malnutrition often have epidermal atrophy and other integumentary changes. Additionally, vitamin and mineral deficiencies (e.g. Vitamin A, zinc, copper, et al.) manifest with integumentary changes including hyperkeratosis, defective hair coat quality, and predisposition to secondary bacterial infections of the skin. Therefore, the skin often reflects both the nutritional and health status of an animal.

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS

Five layers or Strata (the latin word for layer) make up the epidermis. The thickness of these layers varies over the body's surface. Each layer is found either in the germinative or keratinisation zone.

The Basale Layer / Germinative Zone

This layer is the lowest layer of the epidermis. It is formed from a single layer of column shaped cells joined to the epidermal cells (keratinocytes).

In this layer, the cells are living. The Germinative Zone is made up of the Stratum Basale, Stratum Spinosum and the Stratum Granulosum.

It is the innermost layer of the epidermis situated just above the dermis. The columnar keratinocyte cells form a major part of stratum basale layer. Unlike other layers of epidermis that are a multilayered block of cells, the stratum basale is just a single layer of cells, but does an important job of generating new cells. At stratum basale, mitosis (cell division) takes place, which leads to the production of new cells, that eventually reach the top to replace the hardened, dead cells of stratum corneum. The cells located in the epidermis are nourished by the dermis layer lying below it. However, these cells do not survive as soon as they move further away from the stratum basale.

The Stratum Spinosum

This is also called the Prickle Cell Layer. This is the second layer of the epidermis, which consists of 5 to 15 layers of polygonal cells. These cells appear long in relation to their width.

It is located just above the stratum basale containing the Langerhans cells. These cells are a part of the immune system and scavenge on viruses and bacteria to keep the skin safe from infections. These cells then move from the epidermis to the dermis below, and finally enter the lymph system (the body's waste transport system) where the foreign bodies are made safe by neutralising them.

The stratum spinosum is also sometimes referred to the prickly layer, due to the presence of short projections that spring up over the keratinocyte cells that have shifted from the stratum basal layer. These tiny projections or outgrowths help to connect with adjacent cells but give a spiny or prickly appearance to the layer. The keratinocyte cells in the stratum spinosum layer also contain oval-shaped nuclei. The secretion of cytokeratin (a precursor to keratin) takes place in the stratum spinosum, which helps strengthen cell-to-cell adhesion in this layer.

Melanocytes produce the skin pigment melanin; which contributes to our skin colour. About one in every ten germinative cells in a melanocyte. Another pigment, carotene, which is yellowish, also occurs in epidermal cells. Its contribution to skin colour lessens in importance as the amount of melanin in the skin increases; there are various forms of the pigment melanin.

Eumelanin is dark brown to black and is found in black and brown skin.
Pheomelanin is red or yellow and is more dominant in lighter skin.

Both types of melanin are often present in the skin. Melanocytes are stimulated to produce melanin by UV rays and their main function is to protect the other epidermal cells in this way from harmful effects of UV.

The size and distribution of melanocytes differs according to race. In a white person, melanin tends to be destroyed when it reaches the stratum granulosum. With stimulation from artificial or natural UV light, however melanin will also be present in the upper epidermis.

In contrast, black skin has larger sized melanocytes throughout all the epidermal layers, a level of protection that has evolved to deal with bright ultraviolet UV light. This increased protection allows less UV to penetrate the dermis below, reducing the possibility of premature ageing from exposure to UV light. The more even quality and distribution of melanin also meant that people with darker skin are at less risk of developing some types of skin cancer.

The Stratum Granulosum

This is the third layer of the epidermis that consists of flattened granular cells (3-5 layers). As the keratinocyte cells migrate from the previous stratum spinosum to this layer, they turn squamous cells, losing their nuclei. As a result, the cells become flat and contain either keratohyalin or lamellated granules. Keratohyalin present in these granules, is a protein structure that plays a crucial role in the formation of keratin in the upper layers. Whereas, lamellated granules contain glycolipids that act as water sealants.

The Keratinisation Zone

The Keratinisation Zone, or cornified zone is where the cells begin to die and where finally they will be shed from the skin. The cells at this stage become progressively flatter; and the cell cytoplasm is replaced with the hard protein keratin.

Stratum Lucidium

This layer is usually detected in portions of the skin that have a thick epidermis. These include the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. These areas of the skin are prone to friction and abrasion, hence they contain stratum lucidum, an additional layer of protection. When examined under a microscope, it appears transparent, but is made up of dead skin cells.

Stratum Corneum

This is the outermost layer of the epidermis that insulates the skin from the outside environment. It acts like a protective covering, keeping the moisture trapped inside the skin. Basically, the layer seals the skin keeping its contents intact. It is due to this layer that the skin is impermeable to quite a few chemicals and watery solutions. Around 10% of the epidermis layer is made up of stratum corneum. This water-proof, 10- micron thick layer comprises 15-20 layers of dead cells of keratin. The surface layers of epidermis often flake off due to environmental wear and tear.

THE NATURAL BARRIER FUNCTION & HOMEOSTASIS OF THE SKIN

Our skin has many metabolic functions to help keep us alive but in terms of explaining skin barrier function, this can be simplified into two jobs. To keep water in and other stuff out!

Skin barrier is what stands between us and the outside world, kind of like a brick wall surrounding a property (more on the brick wall analogy later).Its primary role is to prevent excess water loss, keeping us well hydrated. Water is essential for many enzymatic processes within the skin, such as desquamation (exfoliation) and ensuring that skin cell turnover is regulated. The second vital role of barrier function is to provide a protective shield to prevent bacteria, toxins and allergens from entering the body.

Our outermost layer of skin, the stratum corneum, is made up of multiple stacks of flattened cells called corneocytes, each of which is encased in a thick water-repellent coating of fat (lipid), holding the cells together to form a cement like glue. This is also referred to as the extracellular matrix i.e. everything that surrounds the cell. To help visualise this imagine a brick wall, with the bricks being our cells (corneocytes) and the mortar, holding the bricks together, as the lipids. Brick walls are fairly strong structures, however if you started removing the mortar, the wall becomes weak and breaks down.

This is what happens in our skin if the barrier function is compromised. The results can be devastating for skin health. Not only from increased trans-epidermal water loss, resulting in skin becoming dehydrated and eventually dry. An impaired barrier also allows bacteria and allergens to enter the skin, resulting in autoimmune responses. Conditions such as acne, rosacea, eczema / dermatitis and psoriasis all have some form impaired barrier function. Therefore repairing it should be skin to treating these conditions.

Skin and homeostasis work together to help the body maintain a constant internal environment. The relationship between them consists of three parts: a receptor, a control center and an effector. Human skin contains receptor cells that sense a change in the environment. These receptors send information to the control center, the hypothalamus in the brain. The hypothalamus then tells an effector, such as sweat glands or blood vessels in the skin, to react in order to maintain a stable body temperature.

During temperature homeostasis, or thermoregulation, the skin and homeostasis cause the body to sweat. When the skin senses that the body is heating up because of the environment's temperature, the hypothalamus sends a signal via nerves to sweat glands and blood vessels in the skin. The blood vessels dilate to allow more blood flow through the skin, which — in tandem with sweating — lowers body heat.

Body temperature regulation done by skin and homeostasis also informs the hypothalamus of when the body is cold. This causes the hypothalamus to send signals to the body to tell it to raise its temperature. The body then begins shivering, constricting blood vessels and forming goosebumps in a process called piloerection. Piloerection is when hair follicles make the hair stand up in an effort to warm the body.

THE EXTRA CELLULAR MATRIX OF THE DERMIS

The dermis consists of a papillary and a reticular layer that serve to protect and cushion the body from stress and strain.

The papillary layer provides the layer above it, the epidermis, with nutrients to produce skin cells called keratinocytes. It also helps regulate the temperature of our skin and thus the body as a whole.Both the nutrient supply and temperature regulation occur thanks to an extensive network of blood vessels in this layer. These blood vessels also help remove cellular waste products that would otherwise kill the skin cells if they were allowed to accumulate.The pink tint to the skin of light-skinned individuals is due to the blood vessels found here. In fact, when you blush, it is the dilation of these blood vessels that causes you to turn red. The uneven projections found in this layer, called dermal papillae, also form people’s fingerprints and give this layer its name.

The reticular layer serves to strengthen the skin and also provides our skin with elasticity. Elasticity refers to how our skin is able to spring back into shape if deformed by something like a pinch. The reticular layer also contains hair follicles, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.The sweat gland can either be apocrine, such as those found in the armpits and the groin area, or the eccrine glands, which are found all over the body. The former help contribute to body odor (along with the bacteria on our skin), and the latter help regulate our body temperature through the process of evaporation.The sebaceous glands found in the dermis secrete a substance called sebum that helps to lubricate and protect our skin from drying out.The dermis also contains:Nerve endings that transmit various stimuli such as pain, itch, pressure, and temperature.Lymphatic vessels that transport immune system cells, the cells that help destroy infectious organisms that may have found their way into our body via a scratch on the skin.Collagen, a protein that helps strengthen our skin, and elastin, a protein that helps keep our skin flexible..

In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a three-dimensional network of extracellular macromolecules, such as collagen, enzymes, and glycoproteins, that provide structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. Lets take a closer look...

Collagen

Collagen is the most abundant protein in our bodies, especially type 1 collagen. It’s found in muscles, bones, skin, blood vessels, digestive system and tendons. Collagen benefits are so striking because this protein is what helps give our skin strength and elasticity, along with replacing dead skin cells. When it comes to our joints and tendons, in simplest terms, it’s the “glue” that helps hold the body together. Our body’s collagen production naturally begins to slow down as we age. We can thank this degenerative process for signs of aging, such as wrinkles, sagging skin and joint pains due to weaker or decreased cartilage (hello, skeleton legs). Other lifestyle factors — like eating a diet high in sugar, smoking and high amounts of sun exposure — also contribute to depleting collagen levels.

It’s been found that collagen-related diseases most commonly arise from a combination of either genetic defects, poor intake of collagen-rich foods, nutritional deficiencies and digestive problems affecting production (synthesis) of collagen. Thankfully, consuming foods like bone broth can provide plenty of this vital protein, and if you’re wondering what is collagen good for, I’m glad you asked.

BENEFITS:

Collagen for skin? It’s considered the No. 1 collagen benefit for a reason. As we age, collagen production

declines — it’s happening as you read this! You’ll notice it physically: looser skin, more wrinkles and less elasticity. Increasing collagen levels can help your skin look firmer, increase smoothness, and help your skin cells keep renewing and repairing normally.

Double-blind, placebo-controlled studies investigating the anti-aging properties of collagen have found that 2.5–5 grams of collagen hydrolysate used among women aged 35–55 once daily for eight weeks significantly improved skin elasticity, skin moisture, transepidermal water loss (dryness) and skin roughness, all with little to no side effects. This makes collagen one of the best natural skin care ingredients available.

Collagen benefits also include reducing cellulite and stretch marks. When skin loses its elasticity as a result of decreased collagen, there’s another side effect: more visible cellulite. Because your skin is now thinner, cellulite becomes more evident — no more hiding what’s happening below the surface. Collagen for skin helps its elasticity and helps reduce potential dimpling.

ELASTIN

Elastin is also a protein found in connective tissues—but a different type of protein than collagen. It has the actual property of being elastic. It’s responsible for allowing tissues in the body to “snap back” to their original shape after being stretched or contracted.

Elastin and collagen are the main structural protein components of the skin. Elastin is about a thousand times more flexible than collagen. It lends elasticity to the skin tissue. Damage or inflammation of the elastin in skin can lead to breakdown or disease of the skin.

The Beauty Benefits of Elastin As mentioned, elastin allows us to convey expressions and move our body in ways that may otherwise be impossible without this elastic characteristic. The beauty benefit here is that we can convey worry, happiness, sadness, or anger without having those expressions lead to permanent stretching of the skin. Likewise, for those who happen to sleep on their side or stomach, thanks to elastin, the stretching of facial skin against a pillow while you sleep doesn’t become permanent (although it could still cause wrinkles). Elastin is also to thank for a smooth, firm jawline and a youthful-looking complexion.

What Causes Elastin Production to Decline? While elastin may be one of the longest-lasting structures in the human body, the protein isn’t immune to degradation. In fact, while elastin’s half-life point only hits when we’re around 74 years old, damage caused to elastin is much more difficult to heal, particularly because there is only one gene that produces tropoelastin, the building block required to create elastin. While internal factors associated with genetics and aging can cause early elastin degradation, external factors, such as pollution or sun exposure, are the main culprits behind the premature degradation of healthy elastin and decreased elastin production well before we reach our seventies. Add to this the fact that elastin production decreases rapidly after birth to the point that a minimal trickle is produced by middle age, and the odds tend to be stacked against us. For this reason, prevention is key to maintaining healthy elastin.

How to Boost Elastin Production: Sunscreen is essential to any anti-aging toolkit to prevent sun damage and, in this case, subsequent elastin degradation, while topical application of the retinoid tretinoin has been associated with improvements in the quality of elastic fibers, making it an effective treatment to reverse UV damage already done. Supplements may also be effective in assisting elastin production. A copper supplement can assist in preventing elastin damage, and studies have shown that a vitamin A supplement may increase elastin production by 300%.In terms of aesthetic treatments, microneedling may effectively boost collagen and elastin production, though the visible effects in tightening skin are limited. Anti-aging treatments focusing on firming up skin specifically may be a better bet for improving the appearance of lax skin under the chin or along the jawline. Safe for all skin tones, these treatments utilize radio frequency technology to deliver uniform heat well below the skin’s surface, kickstarting skin’s natural collagen and elastin production.

PROTEOGLYCANS

Proteoglycans have a positive influence on the state of the skin, since they help to keep it in an optimal hydration condition, supporting the structure of the skin and improving skin aging.

What are proteoglycans?

Proteoglycans are a type of glycoproteins (a protein linked to a whole or a single glucide) that are naturally found in the skin since they are part of the structure of it. They are necessary for a correct structural and functional development of the skin and like hyaluronic acid (a type of proteoglycan), they are able to absorb a large amount of water in the skin and retain it, thus providing a great hydration.

BENEFITS:

All benefits have been proven in several studies (Study 1, study 2, study 3) based on different proteoglycan types on the skin surface. They improve and support the skin firmness; Proteoglycans are components of the extracellular matrix and are they are capable of improving the rigidity of the skin. They are able to interact with other molecules of the matrix (such as collagen) providing stability to the extracellular matrix. They help skin to resist compression forces, playing an important role in skin aging.

Proteoglycans provide hydration to the skin As we’ve said before they’re naturally present on our skin. They are able to provide the necessary hydration structures for making the skin to work in an optimal state, attracting up an hydration level up to 1000 times its volume of water. Due to this fact, a large part of the hydration of the skin is related to the distribution of proteoglycans and glycosoaminoglycans in the skin. They improve skin healing and are able to repair it. They support skin barrier and help improve the healing of wounds. An example of this would be hyaluronic acid, since it increases the inflammation in the skin when it is injured (something important for the repair of the skin when it is being wounded) and it also acts as an antioxidant.In addition to hydrate the matrix promote the movement of keratinocytes and nutrients. They have anti-wrinkle properties.

Some proteoglycans types are able to penetrate the epidermis, and therefore they can improve the appearance of aged or photo-aged skin. They act by improving the firmness of the skin and its elasticity, reducing the number of wrinkles. For example, decorin (a type of proteoglycan) could interfere with the production of collagen fibers in connective tissues. It is known that the content of some proteoglycans in the skin increase when we age, although some others like hyaluronic acid decrease, which may mean that not all proteoglycans types provide anti-aging benefits to the skin.

HOW TO USE PROTEOGLYCANS IN THE SKIN:

Anyone can benefit from proteoglycans, although they are usually used in dry or dehydrated skins or directly in those who want to benefit from their properties against wrinkles or improve elasticity and aging in general. They usually come as ampoules form, which we should apply following the manufacturer’s instructions, we can use them like if they were a serum.

Appendages of the Skin

Skin appendages (or adnexa) are skin-associated structures that serve a particular function including sensation, contractility, lubrication and heat loss. In humans, some of the more common skin appendages arE hairs (sensation, heat loss, filter for breathing, protection), arrector pilli (smooth muscles that pull hairs straight), sebaceous glands (secrete sebum onto hair follicle, which oils the hair), sweat glands (can secrete sweat with strong odour (apocrine) or with a faint odour (merocrine or eccrine)), and nails (protection).

Secretions of the Skin

Skin secretions are those substances and materials that are secreted by the skin and the external mucous membranes. Some skin secretions are associated with body hair. Skin secretions originate from glands that iN

dermal layer of the epidermis.

Sebaceous Glands are found all over the body, except on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet. They are particularly numerous on the scalp, the forehead; and in the back and chest region. The cells of the glands decompose, producing the skins natural oil, sebum. This empties directly into the hair follicle.

The activity of the sebaceous gland increases at puberty, when stimulated by the male hormone, androgen. IN adults, activity in the sebaceous gland gradually decreases again. Men secrete slightly more than women; and on black skin the sebaceous glands are larger and more numerous than on white skin.

Sebum is composed of fatty acids and waxes. These have bactericidal and fungicidal properties; and so discourage the multiplication of micro organisms on the surface of the skin. Sebum also reduces the evaporation of moisture from the skin; and so prevents the skin from drying out.

Acid Mantle: Sweat and sebum combine on the skins surface, creating an acid film, known as the acid mantle; and discourage the growth of bacteria and fungi.

DEFENCE MECHANISM OF THE SKIN

As previously discussed, the skins acid mantle is the first defensive action against microorganisms. Within the epidermis and dermis are the structures responsible for protecting the skin from harmful foreign bodies and irritants.

The epidermis contains Langherns Cells, located amongst the keratinocytes. They collect foreign bodies and transport them to be made non harmful or destroyed by lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell that plays a key role in the immune system).

One set of cells in the dermis, the mast cells, burst when stimulated during inflammation or allergic reactions, and release a chemical substance called histamine. This causes the blood vessels nearby to enlarge, thereby bringing more blood to the site of the irritation to limit skin damage and begin repair.

In the blood, and also in the lymph and the connective tissue, is another group of cells: the macrophages. These play an important role in infection control where they destroy microorganisms and engulf dead cells and other unwanted particles. They play a role in the immune system that protects the body from disease-causing microorganisms.

THE SKINS AGEING PROCESS

The change in appearance of women's skin during ageing is closely related to the altered production of the hormones oestrogen, progesterone and androgen at the menopause.

Mature skin has the following characteristics:

Cellular metabolism slows down the skins renewal process.
The skin becomes dry, as the sebaceous and sudoriferous glands become less active and reduce in number.
The skin loses elasticity as the elastin fibres harden and wrinkles appear due to the cross linking and hardening of the collagen fibres. Females have lower collagen content than males so visible signs tend to be seen faster in women than men.
The epidermis grows more slowly and the skin appears thinner, becoming almost transparent in some areas such as around the eyes, where small veins and capillaries show through the skin. In males. this thinning is slower as it is not related to skin changes that occur as a result of the menopause.
Broken capillaries appear, especially on the cheek area and around the nose.
The facial contours become slack as muscle tone is reduced.
The underlying bone structure becomes more obvious, as the fatty layer (fat pads) and the supportive tissue underneath beneath the skin grow thinner.
Blood Circulation becomes poor, which interferes with skin nutrition and the skin may appear sallow.
Due to the decrease in metabolic rate, waste products are not removed so quickly; and this leads to puffiness. Patches of irregular pigmentation may appear on the surface of the skin such as lentigines and chloasma.

The skin may also exhibit the following skin conditions, although these are not truly characteristic of ageing skin:

Dermal Naevi may be enlarged. The Dermal Naevi is an overgrowth of the epidermis.
Sebrorrhoeic Warts may appear on the epidermal lay of the skin.
Verruca folliformis warts may increase in number.
In women, hair growth on the upper lid or chin, or both, may become darker or coarser, due to hormonal imbalance in the body.
Dark Circles and puffiness may occur under the eyes.

SKIN CONDITIONS

ACNE VULGARIS

occurs mainly on the face, chest, shoulders and back. Symptoms often include comedones, papules, cysts and shiny sallow appearances to the skin. It is an inflammatory disorder of the sebaceous glands linked with hormone imbalances, sebum and bacteria and commonly occurs in teenagers – it is NOT contagious but symptoms can range from mild to severe. Pitting and scarring of the skin may often be its legacy.

ACNE ROSACEA

often referred to as ‘adult acne’ this bacterial condition can affect both men and women. Characterized by redness, this flushed appearance often affects the centre of the face where noticeable blood vessels and pimples can be seen. Again the cause is unknown but hormone levels are thought to play a major part in its development. Symptoms are aggravated by heat, sunshine, alcohol, spicy food and stress.

Infectious and non-infectious skin diseases or conditions specific to the eye and surrounding area such as Herpes. Herpes Simplex - this is the 'cold sore virus'. It is highly contagious and can be easily passed from person to person by close direct contact. Once someone has been exposed to the virus, it remains dormant most of the time. However, every so often the virus is activated by certain triggers, causing an outbreak of cold sores. The triggers that cause cold sores vary from person to person. Some people have frequently recurring cold sores, two to three times a year for example, while others have one cold sore and never have another. Some people never get cold sores because the virus never becomes active. The client should be recommended to go to a local pharmacy for advice. Treatment can be carried out once the condition has cleared completely.

Hyperkeratosis – this occurs when the outer layer of the skin becomes thicker, this often forms as some sort of protection against irritation or pressure. This is usually painless and may be worked on.
Pustules - Can occur from a papule and can have an appearance of raised elevation and may contain pus.
Papules - Papules have raised elevation which may be red in colour.
Skin Tags - Skin tags are a growth of fibrous tissue which is sometimes pigmented.
Milia - Milia are dead skin cells and sebaceous matter which become trapped near the skin surface rather than exfoliating - naturally. The sebum is trapped in a blind duct with no surface opening. Milia can be seen as white odules around the eye. Scarring - Scarring occurs after a wound has healed. It is a mark which may be raised or smooth and shiny.
Erythema - Erythema is the dilation of blood capillaries in the dermis. This results in red skin.
Vitiligo - Vitiligo occurs when the basal cell layer no longer produces melanin. It is apparent in areas of the skin that lack pigmentation.
Broken Capilliaries - Broken capilliaries occur when the capillary walls narrow and widen too quickly causing the muscles in the walls to tear and blood to seep out. This can be seen as small red threads under the skin’s surface.
Melasma - Melasma is often associated with the estrogen and progesterone hormones or sun damage. The effects of melasma are dark skin and discolouration that appears on sun-exposed areas of the face.
Age Spots - As the skin ages, its natural ability to fend off UV rays from the sun begins to deteriorate. This results in age spots which are brown spots which often appear on the face.
Stretch Marks - Stretch marks are often a result of weight gain or pregnancy. The collagen becomes thin and broken when the skin is stretched. The thin, stretched tissue appear red initially and then become silvery.
Melanin - Melanin is the pigment which determines the colour of the skin, eyes and hair and helps protect the skin from the effects of ultraviolet radiation. It is automatically produced in the basal cell layer by melanocytes which have long, slender protrusions on exposure to ultra violet light. These inject melanin into the neighbouring cells of the epidermis and determine the depth of tan a person’s skin will achieve. The higher the Fitzpatrick classification, the more quickly a tan will develop to protect the underlying structures.

There are a number of environmental and lifestyle factors which affect the condition of the skin. These can include diet, pollution, smoking, sun exposure and the care you take of your skin. A lack of moisture can dehydrate the skin, whilst pollution can clog the pores and increase bacteria. Using harsh chemicals on your skin will strip it of vital oils, compromising the skin’s ability to retain moisture. Nicotine from smoking constricts the small blood vessels and decreases the flow of oxygen to the epidermis.

Scarring - The skin is one part of your body which is capable of repairing itself. Wounds and damage to the skin heal through white blood cells fighting off invading micro-organisms to prevent infection. A scab is formed to prevent further invasions, before the stratum basale cells divide through the process of mitosis and new skin is formed.
Sun - The ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun is broken into three bands, with UVA and UVB being of greatest concern to human health. When the skin is exposed to the sun for any period of time, the molecules which make up the living cells are damaged and altered. In extreme cases DNA can be damaged by ultraviolet radiation, causing cells to die. If there is a permanent alteration to the nuclear DNA then certain types of skin cancer may ensue. Ultraviolet radiation mostly affects the epidermis. Damaged cells release chemical substances which are responsible for the widening of the small blood vessels in the skin and the redness it causes. This increased blood supply to the burnt area also allows greater tissue fluid and white cells to accumulate, causing swelling. Repeated damage by the sun will increase the signs of ageing in most skin types. UVC radiation does not affect the skin as it is absorbed by the ozone layer, however it can be found in artificial sources of ultraviolet light.
Skin Cancer - Holly/Alix IBA has a separate E-book qualification for this.

THE FITZPATRICK SCALE

The Fitzpatrick skin type scale classifies skin into six separate categories based on color and response to sunlight. Type I is the lightest in colour and most sensitive to sun exposure; type VI is the darkest and most sun-resistant. This scale is widely recognized in dermatology as a useful tool, and is established as a universal scientific model for measuring skin colour and the effects of ultraviolet (UV) on skin.

The Fitzpatrick scale was established in 1975 by American dermatologist Thomas B. Fitzpatrick. It was originally intended as a way to estimate appropriate doses of UV light for PUVA therapy, a form of light therapy for severe skin diseases. This scale is now used to evaluate a person’s risk level with regard to a range of health concerns, such as skin cancer and vitamin D deficiency. It can also help assess a person’s risk of developing hyperpigmentation and signs of photoaging as a result of sun exposure. Knowing your Fitzpatrick skin type will enable you to better understand how UV radiation is likely to affect your skin, and can help you take the appropriate sun protection measures. As unprotected sun exposure is the leading cause of skin cancer, it is important to arm yourself with this knowledge. This skin typing system will not necessarily apply to everyone with complete accuracy; everyone’s skin is unique, and most people demonstrate characteristics associated with multiple skin types. The Fitzpatrick scale is intended to provide a baseline.

PRODUCT INGREDIENTS

Hyaluronic Acid

Hyaluronic acid is a naturally-occurring substance in skin known for its stunning capacity to attract and hold onto 1000x its weight in moisture. It works overtime by replenishing skin to enhance a healthy, supple look and feel. In the world of skin care, trendy ingredients come and go (and many of them never should have been popular to begin with!). Research shows that hyaluronic acid is not just a trend; on the contrary, it’s one of the best skin care ingredients you can use. Hyaluronic acid is a glycosaminoglycan, a fancy name for a vital naturally- occurring substance that’s part of skin’s youth-supporting matrix. As the chief glycosaminoglycan in skin, hyaluronic acid works to keep every aspect of skin stable, safeguarded, and constantly renewed.

Hyaluronic acid is also a humectant, which is a category of skin care ingredients that are hygroscopic, meaning they draw moisture from their surroundings. Humectants are often found in water-based moisturizers, serums, and other leave-on skin care products because of their ability to help boost hydration for all skin types, which is especially beneficial for dry, dehydrated skin. Hyaluronic acid is also a postbiotic, which is an ingredient that naturally occurs as probiotics found in skin's microbiome break down. Researchers believe that this synergy with skin is another reason application of hyaluronic acid leads to healthier, younger-looking skin: it strengthens and helps rebuild the unique microbiome on your skin.

BENEFITS:

So, what does hyaluronic acid do? The science-based magic lies in hyaluronic acid’s ability to replenish a LOT of moisture. One gram (or 0.03 oz.) of hyaluronic acid can hold up to six LITRES of water. Talk about mind-blowing! What’s even more impressive is that hyaluronic acid can do this for skin without tipping the scales and giving skin too much water (which, surprisingly, can be a problem because it breaks down key substances that normally hold skin’s surface intact).Hyaluronic acid can enhance moisture content beyond comparison. It also revitalizes skin’s outer surface layers, so they look and feel softer, smoother and radiantly hydrated. This instantly improves the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles.

Hyaluronic acid’s moisture-binding characteristic is exceptionally important when it comes to skin aging. When we’re young, our skin can hold onto water and retain a balanced amount of moisture, but it loses this ability as we age. The result is a visible loss of firmness, pliability, and a diminished appearance of plumpness and suppleness (hello, wrinkles). Simply put, hyaluronic acid has powerful anti-aging properties.Unprotected sun exposure and environmental assault weaken skin’s surface and cause premature aging. Hopefully you already know that daily use of a broad-spectrum sunscreen and avoiding harsh skin care ingredients is a must for combating these things, but you might not know that hyaluronic acid’s antioxidant and skin-replenishing properties go a long way toward mitigating those issues, too (especially when used as part of a complete anti- aging skin care routine that also includes other research-backed ingredients). Now that’s what we call a multitasking anti-aging ingredient!

Hyaluronic acid is incredibly gentle and phenomenally helpful for all skin types, even the most sensitive, redness- prone skin. In fact, its positive influence on skin’s surface is due in part to its natural calming benefit, which means it is also suitable for breakout-prone skin. Each of the following fragrance-free formulas contain redness- reducing, hydrating, and antioxidant ingredients that make skin smooth and soft, and they’re gentle enough even for those with eczema-prone and rosacea-prone skin.

niamicide

Niacinamide, also called nicotinamide, is a form of vitamin B-3, an essential nutrient. A B-3 deficiency can lead to disorders of the skin, kidneys, and brain. Taking niacinamide can help prevent B-3 deficiency.And there’s much more to this nutrient, especially when it comes to general skin health. Although more research is needed, topical niacinamide may help treat certain skin conditions, including acne and eczema.

Niacinamide can help build proteins in the skin and lock in moisture to prevent environmental damage.

BENEFITS:

Immunity. Niacinamide helps build keratin, a type of protein that keeps your skin firm and healthy. Lipid barrier.
Niacinamide can help your skin grow a ceramide (lipid) barrier, which can, in turn, helps retain moisture. This is beneficial for all skin types, especially if you have eczema or mature skin. Minimizes redness and blotchiness.
Niacinamide reduces inflammation which may help ease redness from eczema, acne, and other inflammatory skin conditions. Minimizes pore appearance. Keeping skin smooth and moisturized may have a secondary benefit — a natural reduction in pore size over time. Regulates oil. The benefits of moisture retention aren’t just for those with dry skin types.
Niacinimide can also help regulate the amount of oil the sebaceous glands produce and prevent your glands from going into overdrive. Protects against sun damage.
Niacinamide can concurrently rebuild healthy skin cells while also protecting them from damage caused by ultraviolet rays. Treats hyperpigmentation.
ome research has found 5 percent niacinamide concentrations can be helpful in lightening dark spots. Benefits were seen after four weeks, but not beyond two months. This benefit may be due to increased collagen production. Minimizes fine lines and wrinkles.
Research has also found that the same concentration was helpful in reducing some signs of sun damage that come with aging. This includes fine lines and wrinkles. Protects against oxidative stress. Niacinamide helps build cells in the skin while also protecting them from environmental stresses, such as sunlight, pollution, and toxins. Treats acne.
Niacinamide may be helpful for severe acne, especially inflammatory forms like papules and pustules. Over time, you may see fewer lesions and improved skin texture.

collagen on skincare

I know we have already spoke on Collagen in the skin but I want to talk about Collagen in skincare. Collagen is probably one of the most used terms in our articles, and chances are that’s the case with the majority of skincare publications everywhere. From discussing the types and causes of acne, to devising ways to treat acne, all the way to general skincare tips and preventing the aging of the skin, collagen always seems to find its place as one of the biggest factors in your skin’s health. But why is this so? Why do so many skincare products, and even homemade remedies boast of either containing collagen, or boosting its production? To get at the root of the question, and answer why collagen is so important in skincare, we need to go back to the basics. In other words, it’s time for a short science class.

To put it simply, collagen is one of the most plentiful proteins in the body. If that perplexes you, it’s understandable. Just where is collagen located, and what kinds of functions does it perform? As the saying goes, with great power comes great responsibility. And since collagen makes up for a third of your body’s entire protein composition, it would be an understatement to say that its responsibilities are important. Its responsibilities are in fact, crucial.

There are 4 types of collagen inside the human body. Doctors, dermatologists, and other medical professionals have classified these types as Collagen Type I, Collagen Type II, Collagen Type III, and Collagen Type IV. Here’s what each type of collagen does in your body:

Collagen Type I - This type of collagen is by far the most prominent in our body. Collagen Type I makes for 90% of all the collagen inside us, thanks to it being one of the building blocks in our structural organs. Collagen Type I provides support and structure to our bones, teeth, cartilage, joints, tendons, connective tissues, the skin, and other fibrous cartilage.
Collagen Type II - Unlike Type I, this type of collagen isn’t the main so-called building block of the organs and tissues mentioned above. But that doesn’t mean that Collagen Type II isn’t important or that it doesn’t perform important functions as well. Basically, Collagen Type II acts as a support to Type I, cushioning and lubricating your joints, and creating the structure of elastic cartilage. When put under the microscope, Collagen Type II resembles loosely placed fibres, contrary to Collagen Type I, which has a more compact, condensed structure.
Collagen Type III - Moving on, the third class of collagen becomes even more dispersed and acquires different, more specialized functions. For example, Collagen Type III acts as a support structure in the tissues of organs, muscles, and even arteries. If you notice, these collagen categories are moving from “large” to “tiny.”
Collagen Type IV - The fourth and final type of collagen found in the human body is the one that really interests us today. Collagen Type IV performs the important functions of filtering substances in your body and providing a structure to your skin. Collagen Type IV is basically the collagen all those skincare products and beauty commercials advertise. It’s the collagen your skin contains - and needs.

Collagen promotes plenty of skin care benefits. Collagen allows the skin to stay vibrant, young, and firm while protecting it from outside toxins.
Some of the amazing benefits of collagen include...

Skin elasticity
Wrinkle prevention
Strong skin
Skin flexibility
Wound healing

Unfortunately, as we age less of the collagen proteins are found in the skin. As a result, our skin will experience fewer benefits from collagen resulting in the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles. Luckily, there are some fantastic ways to make up for this loss in collagen which we will discuss down below.

glycerin

In beauty products, glycerin serves as a humectant, which is a substance the attracts moisture. It pulls the water from deeper skin layers up to the surface to combat dry skin, as well as draws in moisture from the air and slows its evaporation on your skin.

Glycerin is a natural component of healthy skin. It’s also known as glycerine and glycerol, the latter being the term most often seen in studies about this ingredient. Whether derived from vegetable or animal sources, or made synthetically, glycerin is hygroscopic. What that means is that glycerin can draw moisture from the air around us and help keep that moisture in skin. Another word for hygroscopic is humectant. Other humectants include propylene glycol, AHAs such as glycolic acid, hyaluronic acid, sodium hyaluronate, and sorbitol.

Research has shown that glycerin mimics what’s known as skin’s natural moisturizing factor (NMF), which is why it’s compatible with all skin types, of all ages. Replenishing skin’s NMF is important because it becomes depleted as we age, are subject to environmental exposure, and use irritating ingredients like denatured alcohol.Needless to say, glycerin is good for skin!

Glycerin Skin Care Benefits

Glycerin’s skin benefits are numerous, but it primarily serves to hydrate skin and help it hold on to moisture. Glycerin’s benefits also include:
Helping to shield skin from environmental sources of irritation.
Working with emollients and oils to make dry skin feel amazingly soft and supple.
Fortifying and strengthening skin’s precious moisture barrier.
Enhancing the penetration of other ingredients into skin’s uppermost layers.
Improving skin’s resiliency and youthful look.
Glycerin is also involved in the transport and activity of aquaporins in our skin’s surface. Aquaporins are proteins that channel the flow of vital hydrating substances (including water and glycerol) to skin’s uppermost layers. They play a key role in maintaining skin’s moisture balance, keeping it feeling smooth and comfortable even in drier climates.
Glycerin has a long history of safe use, and is considered non-allergenic and suitable for breakout-prone skin.

There’s every reason to look for skin care products that contain this unsung hero ingredient— from cleansers to serums to, of course, moisturizers.

Alpha hydroxy acids (aha's)& Beta Hydroxy Acids (BHA's)

AHA's are used tin many cosmetic products. Mild Acids, such as the natural fruit acids are used in face creams that allow the removal of the deal skin cells by dissolving the intercellular compounds holding them together. A stronger AHA called Glycolic Acid is used in some anti ageing preparations to stimulate skin renewal. These are designed to remove the dull outer layer of cells and reveal fresher skin beneath, but continuous use can make the skin sore.

Stronger Acids have a shrinking or drying effect on the skin, so care must be taken to apply them in the correct concentrations. Salicylic Acid is included in some preparations to remove dead skin cells, such as aftercare products following intimate waxing to exfoliate the skin and reduce the reduce the possibility of ingrowing hairs. This is from the group Beta Hydroxy Acids (BHA's)

AHA's are water soluble while BHA's are lipid soluble and can exfoliate deeper into the skin. They are ideal for the treatment of acne skin or large open pores.

glycolic acid

Glycolic Acid is derived from sugar cane, is the most common fruit acid and has been around for more than 20 years. If you haven’t been incorporating glycolic acid into your skin care routine for that long, there’s no need to panic. Once you hear the benefits of glycolic acid, we’re willing to bet it’ll be front and centre in your routine in no time.

Benefits:

Has a brightening effect. To understand how glycolic acid can help your skin, it’s important to first understand more about your skin’s cellular turnover rates. In youth, skin surface cellular turnover occurs around every 28 days, but as we age, that rate of turnover slows down, typically by your early to mid-twenties. When that happens, dead cells—instead of fluffing off—can buildup on the surface and cause a dulled skin appearance. That’s where glycolic acid comes in. Dr. Kaminer calls out glycolic acid’s impact on skin’s radiance as one of its most essential qualities, saying, “Most importantly, it’s great for brightening the skin and lightening dark spots.”
Helps smooth the look of fine lines. Improving the look of dull skin isn’t glycolic acid’s only anti- aging ability. It can also help with what’s likely your most pressing aging-related complexion concern —fine lines and wrinkles. According to Dr. Kaminer, glycolic acid can have a smoothing effect that helps reduce the appearance of very fine lines.
Eliminates rough texture. Glycolic acid is a chemical exfoliator, as opposed to a physical exfoliator —like a face scrub. As such, glycolic acid can be used to help eliminate rough texture by sloughing away dead skin cells and smoothing out the top layer of the skin.
Evens out pigmentation. Glycolic acid can also be used to even out pigmentation, says Dr. Kaminer. So, if you’re dealing with hyperpigmentation or discoloration, glycolic acid could be worth adding to your routine.

Salicylic acid

Derived from willow bark or produced synthetically, salicylic acid has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties.

As a BHA, salicylic acid is oil-soluble, which means it can penetrate the skin at a deeper level than water-soluble AHA ingredients.

What are the benefits of salicylic acid for the skin?

Anyone can use salicylic acid, but it’s especially useful for people with oily or acne-prone skin. Here’s what it can do:

Penetrates deep into pores
Loosens dead skin cells
Clears clogged pores
Reduces sebum secretion
Reduces inflammation and redness
Helps to break down pimples and comedones

Salicylic acid improves the skin’s appearance, reduces blemishes and helps to prevent blackheads and breakouts.

Salicylic acid for acne

As it’s oil-soluble, salicylic acid can penetrate down into pores and dissolve excess sebum and debris, making it ideal for oily and acne-prone skin,’ explains Dr Zamani. It also regulates oil production.’‘ An anti-inflammatory effect can help skin to look less red and inflamed,’ she continues. ‘The general exfoliating effect will help the skin look brighter and smoother and allow other skincare products to penetrate the skin more effectively.’

Salicylic acid as an exfoliant

Salicylic acid is keratolytic, which means that it breaks down keratin, says Dr Nasir. Keratin is the main protein in your skin and it makes up your skin barrier – the outermost layer. ‘Salicylic acid helps remove dead skin cells by chemically exfoliating the top layer of skin,’ she says.

Salicylic acid for blackheads and whiteheads

Blackhead and whiteheads form when excess oil mixes with dead skin cells and forms a plug that clogs a pore. Due to its keratolytic properties, salicylic acid delves deep into skin to dissolve the plugs.

poly hydroxy acid

Poly hydroxyl acid, also otherwise known as PHA is a group of acids, quite similar to that of Alpha hydroxyl acid, especially when it comes to its functioning regarding skin care. The two acids belonging to this class that is specifically used for skin care such as exfoliation and moisturizing are gluconolactone acid and lactobionic acid.

Similar to AHAs, PHAs work by exfoliating dead skin cells on the surface, resulting in a more even skin tone and texture, and also help skin-care ingredients penetrate deeper into the layers of your skin, thus boosting their efficacy. PHAs also fight glycation, a process that takes place when digested sugar permanently attaches to the collagen in your skin and can weaken it, along with elastin levels; they're also rich in antioxidants and stimulate epidermal growth and repair.

The unique properties of PHAs mentioned above — larger molecule size, surface level penetration — make them ideal for virtually all skin types, especially if you've experienced sensitivity in the past with an AHA- or BHA-based product. PHAs are wonderful alternatives to both AHAs and BHAs if you tend to have very sensitive skin and could not tolerate many chemical exfoliants.

Additionally, PHAs are an attractive option for those with dry skin as they are humectants, meaning they attract water and are ultimately moisturizing. And because it's a gentler ingredient. It is advised for those with dry, itchy skin," eczema, or atopic rosacea to try PHAs to help smooth and retexturize

Kojic acid

Kojic acid is a godsend for anyone who’s battling dark spots and dull skin. It is a wonder ingredient present in skin brightening creams and serums, and I will tell you why.

Kojic acid is an agent that is extracted from different types of fungi, especially the different strains of Aspergillus (a kind of fungus). It was first discovered in 1907 and was extracted from a strain of spergillus called Aspergillus oryzae grown on steamed rice.

The name kojic acid is taken from the Japanese term “koji,” meaning “steamed rice.” It is widely used in cosmetic and skin care products as a whitening and brightening agent (1). Let’s get to know more about it in detail.

Kojic acid is a key ingredient in many skin brightening creams, gels, and serums. The Scientific committees on Consumer Products (SCCP) approved using kojic acid in skin care products at a concentration of 1% or less (2).You will come across soaps, cleanser, serums, creams, and lotions containing different concentrations of kojic acid. You need to use the product as per the instructions provided by the manufacturer. While you have to wash off soaps and cleansers immediately after application, you can leave serums, creams, and lotions on overnight for better absorption. Let’s now understand how kojic acid functions.

Kojic acid brightens your skin by inhibiting melanin production. Melanin is the pigment that colors your skin, eyes, and hair. Overproduction of melanin often gives you dark spots and uneven skin tone. Your body produces melanin with the help of an amino acid called tyrosine. Kojic acid inhibits the function of tyrosine, which, in turn, inhibits melanin production.

Its main benefits for the skin are:

It reduces Hyperpigmentation I
t has anti ageing effects
It has antibacterial properties
It has anti fungal properties

L-Ascorbic Acid

L-ascorbic acid is one of the most abundant antioxidants in the skin. Once in the skin, studies show L- ascorbic acid stimulates collagen synthesis, provides sun protection and protects the skin by reducing free radicals that otherwise would destroy skin cells and their components.

Synthetically derived or found naturally in fruits and vegetables, vitamin C (l-ascorbic acid) is lauded for its powerful antioxidant benefits. In its pure form, it helps neutralize free radicals to protect against oxidative stress and provides visible anti-aging benefits. Suitable for all skin types, vitamin C antioxidants are strictly formulated for enhanced efficacy, absorption, and stability.

Because L-Ascorbic Acid plays a major role in anti-aging treatments, skin firmness, overall repair and brightening, it also serves to rejuvenate the skin. Conditions such as aging skin, hyperpigmentation and post-inflammation hyperpigmentation benefit greatly from L-Ascorbic Acid skin care products.

alpha lipoic acid

Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA) is an organic compound made by mitochondria found in every cell in your body. Mitochondria, commonly referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, contain enzymes to transform energy in your food into energy your body can use. ALA is needed for some of these enzymes to function.

Although your body produces ALA, the amount it makes is relatively small compared to the amount you get through your diet. Red meat and organ meat are among the best animal sources while spinach, broccoli, rice bran, tomato, and Brussels sprouts are among the best plant sources.

ALA has powerful antioxidant effects that are thought to have benefits for our health. It’s a common addition to skin care products, and many companies claim that it can protect your skin from environmental damage and prevent signs of aging.

Let’s dig deeper into the potential benefits of ALA for skin care and look at how you can best use it:

ALA benefits for skin health are thought to come from its high antioxidant content. An antioxidant is a molecule that protects your cells from damage by donating electrons to potentially dangerous molecules called free radicals.
Your skin contains a high concentration of antioxidants like vitamin C and vitamin E to protect against ultraviolet light, air pollution, and cigarette smoke. There’s a limited amount of research on ALA for skin health, but a handful of studies have found some promising results.
Sun protection - There’s often little to no ALA found in the outer layers of the skin, so it’s thought that applying ALA topically could act as a protective layer to protect your skin from ultraviolet (UV) light rays.
Antiwrinkle - There’s a limited amount of research looking at ALA’s effects on wrinkles. However, one study did find promising results.
Anti-aging - It’s thought that ALA can have anti-aging benefits due to its strong antioxidant benefits that protect from sun damage and stress caused by pollution and other environmental factors.

Lactic Acid

Lactic acid is an antiwrinkle and pigmentation-fighting ingredient found in over-the-counter (OTC) and professional-grade skin care products. Derived from milk, lactic acid belongs to a class of anti-aging ingredients called alpha-hydroxy acids (AHAs). Other examples of AHAs include glycolic acid and citric acid.

Keep reading to learn how a lactic acid peel can improve your skin, OTC products to try, what to expect from a professional peel, and more.

A chemical peel works by using a chemical — in this case, lactic acid — on bare skin. It removes the top layer of skin (epidermis). Some stronger formulas may also target the middle layers of skin (dermis).Despite the name, your skin doesn’t noticeably “peel” off. What is noticeable, though, are the effects underneath the removed epidermis: smoother and brighter skin.Lactic acid is specifically used to treat hyperpigmentation, age spots, and other factors that contribute to a dull and uneven complexion. Other benefits of AHAs like lactic acid include improved skin tone and reduced pore appearance.However, unlike AHAs such as glycolic acid, lactic acid is a bit milder. This makes a lactic acid peel a better choice for sensitive skin. Lactic acid may also be an option if you’ve tried another AHA in the past and found the product too strong.

azelaic acid

Azeleic acid is a natural byproduct of yeast that lives on your skin, and it belongs to a family of acids called dicarboxylic acids. It's obtained from grains such as barley, wheat and rye, when used in skincare products, it is typically lab-engineered for maximum stability and effectiveness.

Azeleic acid has the same effect as a leave-on exfoliant. It has several benefits:

Breaks down dead skin cells
Clears pores
Reduces hyperpigmentation
Anti-inflammatory

spf

Wearing SPF is very important for preventing skin cancer and the aging process. According to The Skin Cancer Foundation, wearing sunscreen protection every day can highly reduce your risk of developing some type of skin cancer up to 50%.

It helps protect your skin from the strong UV rays, which sadly age your skin. Wearing SPF daily can help prevent any damage, so to be extra cautious we advise wearing factor 30 or higher. Studies have shown that not wearing sun cream can lead to burning the skin, which in turn can increase the chances of skin cancer. Being burnt is not in anyway cool or fashionable, so we cannot stress enough how important it is to apply onto your skin!

squalane

Squalene isn’t only natural in humans. The moisturizer is naturally present in olives, rice bran, and sugarcane. It’s also found and harvested from shark livers.

Squalane is a hydrocarbon derived by the hydrogenation of squalene, Squalene (with an ‘e’) is a lipid (or a fat), which is produced naturally by your skin cells. But if squalene is your body’s natural moisturiser – a component of the sebum produced to keep your skin clean and healthy.

Hydrated skin is healthy skin. So, when applied topically, squalane has tremendous benefits.Boosting hydration can help your skin appear more vibrant and healthier. The antioxidants in these oils and creams also fight skin damage and free radicals, which can both accelerate the aging process. According to research Trusted Source, squalane is also a detoxifier.Regular use can also boost collagen production, resulting in firmer skin.

hydroquinoine

Hydroquinone is one such ingredient that will remove pigmentation from your skin and make it appear bright. It is a lightening and brightening ingredient that reduces the melanin content from the skin. With an effective skin care regime, your skin will improve in appearance and texture. Learn how to incorporate Hydroquinone in skin care for smooth and bright skin.

Skin conditions like melasma, freckles, age spots, acne scars, eczema, and psoriasis marks may benefit from Hydroquinone. You will see a significant reduction in the red and brown spots over the skin. However, there won’t be any change in the active inflammations or new darker spots. The bleaching agent may act on acne scars, but it will not reduce any redness that may come with new acne breakouts.

copper peptide

In short, copper peptides, such as GHK (glycyl-l-histidyl-l-lysine), are also known as carrier peptides where their primary function is to carry copper ions.

GHK is naturally present in the body and as we age, levels begin to deplete. On its own, GHK is a powerful antioxidant, but when it’s combined with copper (Cu) it forms something called copper tripeptide-1, which creates a peptide complex that has a huge range of benefits for skin.

Its natural role, as found in the human body, includes the activation of a wide range of skin health functions, including healing, immune function, collagen synthesis, production of fibroblasts (which are cells that work as collagen/elastin ‘factories’) and anti-inflammatory responses. This in turn will help to reduce visible signs of ageing, improve the look of skin elasticity, density and firmness and enhance skin clarity.

they may specifically stimulate more collagen production in your skin, which may address concerns like:

fine lines
enlarged pores
age spots

The connective tissue growth caused by copper peptides may also benefit your hair by reducing breakage and promoting overall growth.Still, it’s not currently possible for any beauty product to fully restore collagen and other connective tissues once they’re lost.

cbd/hemp

Cannabidiol, commonly known as CBD, is a naturally-occurring chemical compound found in cannabis plants (eg: marijuana and hemp). It's one of the two primary active ingredients of cannabis, the other one being THC (tetrahydrocannabinol).Unlike THC, pure CBD is a non-psychoactive cannabinoid, meaning it doesn't make you feel high. Research shows that CBD may be effective in alleviating anxiety, chronic inflammation and pain, insomnia and

some rare forms of childhood epilepsy.

Cannabidiol offers some serious antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits which can be beneficial in treating skin concerns like inflammation, dryness and free radical damage.

CBD for Acne-Prone Skin - Research has firmly established that acne is an inflammatory condition. Although multiple factors trigger acne, we know that anything you apply to skin that can reduce inflammation and help soothe skin (that's where CBD comes in) is likely to visibly reduce breakouts, especially acne-related redness. Numerous studies have shown that CBD oil has anti-inflammatory benefits when applied to skin.

This makes CBD a suitable ingredient for acne-prone skin, while its calming benefits help reactive skin look and feel better. Research also shows that CBD has the potential to decrease excess sebum (oil) production, possibly due to its balancing effect on the flow of skin’s oil. Despite such encouraging news, most scientists studying CBD agree that more conclusive, scientific studies are needed to confirm these initial results.

CBD Oil for Wrinkles and Anti-Aging - Because it comes from a plant, it’s not surprising that CBD oil also has antioxidant properties. The antioxidants in CBD are one way topical use helps lessen the visible signs of aging. By counteracting free-radical damage and reducing the look of inflammation, CBD anti-aging creams visibly diminish issues like wrinkles, skin dullness, and ruddy skin tone. Of course, there are plenty of other antioxidants out there that can make the same claims so CBD isn’t the only or “best” antioxidant to seek out; rather, it’s just one of many to consider, and the more of these ingredients you give to skin, the better.

CBD Oil for Sensitive Skin - Another benefit of CBD oil is that it has been found to have significant soothing properties. Its substantial skin-calming and skin-normalizing effects can help minimize issues related to skin sensitivity, including redness and reactivity. Since all skin types are affected daily by environmental stressors, CBD’s soothing mechanism can help keep everyone’s skin in check.

How to Find the Best CBD Skin Care - With so many CBD skin care products available, you need to know what to look for so you can be sure you’re finding the best CBD oil (or other types of CBD skin care). Here are some CBD shopping tips: Make sure the ingredient list states “cannabidiol”. As mentioned above, other terms aren’t INCI- compliant, nor is hemp seed oil or extract the same as CBD oil. Many brands selling CBD skin products list the total cannabidiol content in milligrams, sometimes further broken down per use. This is a good indicator the CBD product is legitimate, although there’s currently no consensus on how much CBD skin needs per application; we just know skin has receptor sites for this ingredient that when connected can interrupt signals that cause skin to act up. Ask the brand or check to see if they provide evidence of third-party certification on the purity and stated amount of the CBD to be sure you’re getting what the label claims. Look for CBD skin care in stable packaging--no jars, clear bottles or any component that exposes this delicate plant ingredient to a lot of light or air, which cause it to become less effective.

Some brands advertise their CBD as being “isolate”, “full spectrum”, or “broad spectrum”. None of these terms are regulated, but they can be helpful differentiators: CBD isolate means pure CBD, no other cannabinoids or other naturally occurring substances like flavonoids or terpenes. Full spectrum CBD means everything that occurs in the hemp plant alongside the CBD, including trace amounts of THC and other cannabinoids such as CBG (cannabigerol) and antioxidant compounds. Broad spectrum CBD means no THC is detectable. Trace amounts of THC can be detected in full spectrum CBD, but must fall below 0.3% in order to not be considered active.

The bottom line: As long as it’s extracted within the proper parameters, CBD oil does have benefits for skin.

DMAE

Dimethylaminoethanol — the molecule also known as DMAE — is commonly used to treat a variety of mental ailments.It is, for example, an ingredient in medications like Deanol, for ADHD, and Lucidril, for senile dementia. But the positive effects of DMAE are believed to extend beyond mental wellness. It’s also found in skin care products that promise anti-aging benefits.

DMAE is said to tighten muscles in the skin of the face, which in turn may result in a more youthful appearance.

DMAE is also given credit for boosting phosphatidylcholine, a fatty acid (lipid) that stems from choline. Phosphatidylcholine is believed to have an antioxidant effect that protects skin cells from free radical damage. This effect may be linked to similar claims that DMAE enhances the ability of skin cells to retain water, a process that helps cells heal but may also lead to tighter skin.

Finally, DMAE is said to reduce lipofuscin, a brownish pigment that leads to liver spots, and also reduce arachidonic, a chemical that can cause pain and inflammation. All of these effects have potential benefits for the skin.

amino acids

Amino acids play an important role in maintaining your overall health and getting beautiful skin. There are many amino acids, but only 20 are really important for our health and can be divided into 2 types: essential and non-essential amino acids. Essential amino acids are amino acids that are not produced by the body itself. You only get their benefits from eating certain foods or supplements. Non-essential amino acids are produced by your body and therefore it is not 'essential' to get them from your diet or supplements. There are 9 essential amino acids: histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. They are found mainly in products that contain animal proteins (such as seafood, beef, poultry, dairy products and eggs) but also in vegetables such as quinoa and soy products.

The 11 non-essential amino acids are: alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and tyrosine. Some of these non-essential amino acids are only produced when we are sick or stressed.

HOW AMINO ACIDS HELP YOUR SKIN:

Amino acids are indispensable for healthy skin. They are the building blocks of peptides and proteins and each amino acid performs a specific function in skin care. Some types occur naturally in the skin and work together with aquaporins (the water transport system of your body) to transport moisture through the skin. Some amino acids work as an antioxidant, but most help your skin to reproduce its own antioxidants. Research has shown that synthetic amino acids hydrate better than amino acids originating from an animal or plant source. Whether produced internally or applied topically, amino acids help to strengthen the immune system, maintain the skin’s hydration, resilience and an overall healthy appearance. They protect skin from free-radical damage and reduce signs of ageing. That’s why we have included several amino acids in our skin-firming Peptide Booster as well as in other skincare products.

THE BEST AMINO ACIDS FOR YOUR SKIN:

All essential and non-essential amino acids play a role in getting a beautiful skin, but there are some that have extra benefits.

Arginine: helps to restore visible skin damage.
Histidine: soothes the skin and has antioxidant properties.
Methionine: protects the skin from harmful substances.
Lysine: strengthens the skin’s surface.
Proline, leucine and glycine: make fine lines and wrinkles less deep.

ceramides

Ceramides Skin Benefits: Moisturizing. Soothing. Similar to fatty acids, ceramides are a type of lipids found in cell membranes. A high concentration of ceramides is located in the epidermis- the outermost layer of skin cells. This is to help the skin retain moisture and protect against water loss.

Ceramides are a type of fat, or lipid, that contribute to the 'mortar' that holds skin cells in the epidermis together. Think of them like grout between your skin cell tiles, help form a waterproof seal on the surface of the skin, preventing loss of hydration, maintaining a healthy skin barrier, and preventing environmental irritation.

Outside of natural aging, your skin can also suffer premature ceramide depletion if you don't care for it properly. Ceramide loss occurs when we overextend our skin or expose it to extreme environments, That means the wrong behaviour will actually expedite the loss of ceramides and leave you with noticeably uncomfortable-feeling skin well before nature may intend. Over-scrubbing, use of the wrong type of soap, or even extremes in weather (e.g. cold, dry air) can lead to depletion of ceramides in the skin.

Mature skin can benefit from ceramide-containing products, and since ceramides are a naturally-occurring lipid found within the skin, they're safe to use for all skin types. Leave-on products like serums and creams allow for maximum absorption. Use them alone or alongside retinoids hydroxyacids, and exfoliants to stave off potential irritation.

vitamin e

If you’re looking for natural ways to support healthy skin, vitamins are important to help maintain skin’s appearance and health. The best source of vitamins is from nutrient-rich foods, but vitamin supplements and topical products containing vitamins can also be beneficial. In addition to helping skin look its best, vitamins can be used to treat a variety of skin conditions like acne, psoriasis, and the aging effects from sun exposure on your skin.

While vitamin E oil is very thick and hard to spread on skin, it can make an excellent moisturizer for dry, patchy areas of skin. Products containing vitamin E as an ingredient may be easier to apply for overall use on skin. Problem areas that are very dry, such as the cuticles and elbows, might benefit from topical application of vitamin E oil.

vitamin D

Vitamin D deficiency results from lack of exposure to sunlight (for example: if you live in the northern hemisphere, [cover up with clothing, or simply avoid the sun and wear sunscreen]), impaired vitamin D absorption [due to a medical condition], medications that impair vitamin D absorption, and low dietary intake.

Healthy levels of vitamin D have been demonstrated to prevent skin aging. Skin aging can be demonstrated molecularly, by the shortening of telomeres, the caps of genetic material on the free ends of DNA strands. These telomeres shorten with age, rendering the DNA more and more unstable, until the cell dies.

retinol/retinoids

Retinol is one of the best-known skin care ingredients on the market. An over-the-counter (OTC) version of retinoids, retinols are vitamin A derivatives primarily used to treat anti-aging concerns as well as acne. That said, retinols are not the same products as prescription retinoids, which are more potent. However, retinol is still the strongest OTC version available as compared to other OTC retinoids such as retinaldehyde and retinyl palmate. Retinol has many potential skin care benefits, but there are side effects to consider, too.

Curious about whether retinol could be a beneficial addition to your skin care routine?

How it works

Retinol is a type of retinoid, which is made from vitamin A. Rather than removing dead skin cells as many other anti-aging and acne products do, the small molecules that make up retinol go deep beneath the epidermis (outer layer of skin) to your dermis.

Once in this middle layer of skin, retinol helps neutralize free radicals to boost the production of elastin and collagen. This creates a “plumping” effect that reduces the appearance of fine lines, wrinkles, and enlarged pores. At the same time, retinol has an exfoliating effect on the skin’s surface that can further improve texture and tone.

Retinol can also help treat severe acne, as well as related scarring. It helps keep your pores unclogged by creating comedolytic agents to help prevent the formation of comedones or blemishes. For severe acne, your dermatologist may prescribe an antibiotic in conjunction with your retinol treatment. Keep in mind that it may take up to six weeks to see improvements in your breakouts.

Finally, retinol has also been proven to balance your skin hydration levels. Mild exfoliating effects help to remove dead skin cells that may lead to moisture loss. This may even benefit oily skin by controlling excess production of sebum in your pores.

What it treats.

Retinol is primarily used to treat the following skin conditions:

acne
fine lines/wrinkles
age (sun) spots, freckles, and other signs of sun damage, sometimes called photoaging uneven skin texture
melasma and other types of hyperpigmentation
large pores caused by acne, oily skin, or collagen loss

To achieve the best results from your retinol-containing skin care product, you must use it every day. It may take several weeks until you see significant improvements.

SKIN TYPES

There are a variety of different skin types, which all have their own visible characteristics. The basic skin types are normal, dry, oily and combination.

Normal - In normal skin the water and oil content is constant; neither too oily or too dry. The pore size of normal skin is small or medium and the moisture content is good. The texture is smooth and even, the colour is healthy, the elasticity is good and the skin is firm. Normal skin is usually free from blemishes and is often found in young people.
Dry - Dry skin is often lacking in sebum, moisture or both. The pore size is small and tight and the moisture content is poor. The texture is course and thin and possibly flaking, which can lead it to feel papery. Dry skin has a tendency towards sensitivity and possible premature ageing, particularly around the eyes. The skin pigmentation can be uneven and it has little elasticity. Additionally milia are often found around the cheek and eye.
Oily - Oily skin has increased levels of sebum. The pores are enlarged, the skin has a high moisture content and the texture is coarse and thick. The elasticity and skin tone is good although it is prone to shininess and uneven pigmentation and can be sallow in colour. This skin type is susceptible to skin disorders such as comedones, pustules, papules, milia or sebaceous cysts and is most common during puberty.
Combination -Combination skin is oily around the chin, nose and forehead (T-zone) and the rest of the face and neck is usually dry. The pores in the T-zone are enlarged, and small to medium in the cheek. The moisture content is high in oily areas, and poor in dry areas. The texture is coarse and thick in the T-zone and thin in dry areas. The Oily skin is sallow, whilst the dry area is sensitive, with high colour. In combination skin the tone is good in oily areas, and poor in dry areas, leaving the pigmentation uneven, and there may be blemishes in the oily areas. This is the most common skin type.
Sensitive Skin - Some people suffer from sensitive skin separately from the dry skin type. This can be recognised by high colouring, and broken capillaries in the cheek area. The skin is usually warm and there can be some flaking. In black skin, the irritation shows as a darker patch, rather than redness. Sensitive skins will often redden with heat and alcohol, blushing and/or flushing more easily. They may also react to products, allergens and creams more readily causing breakouts. Allergic skin is irritated by external allergens. It may initially become sensitised, and this can develop into a full blown allergic reaction when the skin is exposed to those ingredients or chemicals as and when they are applied.
Dehydrated Skin - Dehydrated skin has lost water, and is usually associated with dry or combination skin types. This could be due to a change in diet, or illness, in which case the client may be taking medication. It can also be caused by low humidity or air-conditioning. The skin has a slight orange-peel effect and some flaking. There are some signs of ageing and broken capillaries.
Mature Skin - Mature skin can take on different skin characteristics, particularly in women, due to the
hormonal changes within the body. It can become dry and lose elasticity. Some lines and wrinkles will appear, and skin is thinner. Broken capillaries will appear, muscle tone is reduced and blood circulation becomes poor. There can be some puffiness due to a decrease in excretion efficiency, and irregular pigmentation can occur. 1.Gender -Male skin can be quite different to female skin as it has a more acidic surface due to higher levels of sebum produced from more sebaceous glands. However, the process of shaving can sensitise and dry the skin. The ageing process appears to be slower in male skin, due to a thicker dermis and epidermis and it may feel firmer.